Answering Questions of Salary

Discussing salary is a touchy subject in any job interview -- what if you ask for too much or not enough? Here's how you can navigate the salary question and position yourself to make more money, before and during the job interview.

First, when replying to classified ads that ask for salary requirements or a salary history, do NOT to answer directly. Because, any answer will hurt your chances.

Remember that a typical classified ad can produce hundreds of resumes. And a fast way to make that pile smaller is to weed out applicants who are either too expensive (over-qualified) or too cheap (under-qualified).

So, in your cover letter, it would simply say: "My salary requirements are negotiable." This shows you've read the ad, but are choosing to dodge the issue. On the contrary, it gives them one LESS reason NOT to call you.

What about salary questions in the interview? These require advance planning.

You can say: "Well, I'd like to make as much as other employees with my qualifications." (Here you can repeat 2-3 of your most valuable skills or achievements, just to remind them how qualified you are.) Then add: "And what is a typical salary for this position?"

Another strategy is to avoid a specific salary ... and name a pay range instead. Say: "I was thinking of a salary in the $25,000 to $35,000 range," (with $25,000 being the lowest amount you'd accept). That way, you can name a higher figure, if they try to pin you down, yet still be able to retreat to a point that satisfies you.

Finally, information is power here. If you can back your salary request with a list of average salaries you've obtained from the Internet or from phone calls, you'll enjoy greater leverage in your negotiations.

Tips for Requesting a Raise

You probably think you deserve a raise. But does your boss think so?

Here's how to go about convincing your boss that you're really worth more than you're being paid.

First, you must realize that doing a great job is NOT a good enough reason to justify a raise. Your employer EXPECTS you to do a great job. Your performance must be "over and above" what other employees in similar positions are doing. And you can't rely on your boss to recognize your true worth without help from you. If you don't ask for one, you may never get a raise.

So here's what you do. First, make a list of your specific accomplishments that EXCEED the job you were hired to do. Make your list as specific as possible. Provide a detailed record of how you've beaten goals, taken on additional responsibilities, and contributed to the organization's success in ways that were significant.

Second, do some research; find out what others in similar positions at other companies are making. If it's more, you definitely want to have this information to back up your request. (If it's less, don't mention it and be satisfied with what you're earning!)

When you have your ammunition ready, wait for the right time to ask your boss if you can talk with him about your performance. Timing is critical! You want to talk to him when he's in a GOOD MOOD. If he's in a bad mood, distracted by work problems, or otherwise not very approachable, WAIT. It doesn't matter how eager you are to request your raise. If your boss is not in a good mood, you'll just be wasting your time.

Once you've determined the timing is right, tell your boss that you would appreciate his considering giving you a raise, based on your "above and beyond" performance. Say you've taken the liberty of writing out your accomplishments for his easy reference, and give him your list. Then mention (if appropriate) what employees in similar positions are earning at other companies, and give him the data to back it up.

Do not mention a specific salary figure that you'd like to earn. This is the beginning of a negotiation process, and your first step is to convince your boss that your request deserves consideration. Once you pass that hurdle, be prepared to suggest a RANGE, such as a 3-5% increase.

If you've presented a good case and you know from your research that you are worth more than you are being paid, chance are good that you'll obtain your raise. But it depends on many factors, least of which may be your boss's desire to keep you on his staff. He may agree that you deserve a raise and desperately want to give it to you, but this may not be a decision he has the authority to make. Plus the company's budget is another important factor. Depending on how well things are going, there simply may not be enough in the coffers to pay you what you're worth.

If for whatever reason you are unsuccessful in obtaining a raise, you'll need to decide what your next step should be. If you love your job, you may be willing to continue working there. If not, be prepared to start looking elsewhere if a higher salary is your top priority.

Negotiating Salaries - Negotiating the salary you deserve...

Most of your job hunt should be a win-win process - you are seeking a good employer in your chosen field, while recruiters are seeking good candidates who will fulfill important functions within their organizations. A good match benefits both.


This is not true when it comes to negotiating salaries. Salary negotiation is where your goals conflict directly - your goal should be to get the best salary possible, one that captures a fair proportion of the value you can deliver. The recruiter's goal is to recruit you as cheaply as possible without you feeling exploited.


You can just 'roll over' and accept what you are offered or a small increment on what you are already being paid. If you do this, then you lose. For example, if you do not negotiate you may lose $5,000 a year for 5 years - think of what you could do with $25,000!


By doing a little research and playing the negotiation game, you may find that you can substantially increase the salary you are paid.


Putting Yourself in the Best Position

An important part of the negotiation occurs before the negotiation starts.
Firstly, it is useful to have other recruiters interested in you - this gives you the power to walk away if the recruiter's offer is too low. If you have been active and organized in your job hunt, you should have plenty of interviews arranged - if you do, then make sure that the recruiter you are negotiating with knows. This will put pressure on him or her to make a good offer.


Remember also that recruitment is an uncertain and judgment-based activity. Companies often do not know whether they have made the correct decision until the new recruit has been doing the job for several months. Where potential recruiters can see that other people are interested in you, this gives them confidence that you must be a good candidate (and that you are therefore worth more).


Secondly, make sure that you research the sort of salaries that are on offer in the industry. Look at the employment section of the industry magazine and visit sites to help you to understand the salary ranges that are offered for the job, and help you to understand what are good and bad offers. If you can, research the salaries of people at the next level above you and at the next level below you. It will cause you and the employer real problems if you are paid more than your boss. Similarly, you will not be pleased if you find that you are paid less than people working for you!


Thirdly, think through how rare your skills are, and how many people have the skills the recruiter's needs - the more uniquely you meet these needs, the more power you have in the negotiation.

When Is It Appropriate?

Let's face it. Most of us would rather face a Survivor tribunal than negotiate salary.

The temptation is to accept or reject the offer as it is presented rather than to negotiate terms. But what if you are given an offer by an organization that has truly impressed you, that meets all of your needs except salary or benefits? If you accept it, will you do it with no regrets or hard feelings, especially if it means you have to share living quarters while your friends are working a similar job in a similar location for more money? If you cannot answer that question with a strong "yes," then it is probably time to negotiate.

  Negotiation is easier if you remember that its purpose is to reach an agreement. Consider it as a method to reach a situation that both you and the employer feel good about.

The Job Offer

When you receive an offer, express your interest in the company and enthusiasm for the job.  If the company representative does not offer the information, ask about their benefit package. Take notes. It is easier to have a written offer in hand, but that is not always possible.

Ask for at least 24 hours after receiving the offer to make a decision, although you can ask for more if you are interviewing with other organizations.  Tell the recruiter your career means a lot to you and you want to be very sure you are making the right decision.

After you have reviewed the offer carefully, decide which points you would like to negotiate.

Anticipate objections such as
"You don't have enough experience."
"The budget won't permit it."
"That is the maximum we pay for this position."
"That is what we pay new hires."
The Negotiation

Start with a positive statement about your appreciation of the offer and interest in the position, then indicate that you were hoping to receive at least (name your figure) in salary, or whatever you are negotiating.
If you have other offers at a higher figure, you can mention them at this point, or use information from your research to back up your request.
Ask if your figure is a possibility.

If the representative says it is not, ask if there are other ways you can achieve your goal, such as company assistance with housing or a car, an earlier salary review, a signing bonus, or different options on benefits so you can take home more.

Hopefully, the representative will be able to offer something you can accept.
Sometimes, the company policy is set and negotiation will not work. Your answer should be ready because you have already anticipated this. Either thank the representative for considering you and express regret that you cannot accept the offer, or accept the offer because of other things offered.
Even if your negotiations do not succeed, you have learned an important skill that will help you in the future.

How to Find a Job in China

How to give gifts in China ?

A few simple ways to finding a job in China

If you want to work in China,we can help you and give you an opportunity. Working in China is in deed a chanllege for a foreigner. We konw many foreigners who are very interested in China.
Simply, if you have a bachelor degree and your native language is English,you may have a chance to get a job which teach English in China,especially oral English. China has more than 5000 schools need Foreign English teachers,so it's very easy to get such a job in China.
Chinese are friendly,they always be happy to help foreigners. And students in China are very polite,and they always study hard.

Find a school and teach English.
For the majority of China's history and even late into the 20th century, the government had closed off its borders to foreigners - especially to foreigners from the Western World. Now, with its fast growing economy, the Chinese are realizing that English is a necessity in order to become the global power she once was.

Luckily, for people who can speak English, this allows for greater opportunities for teaching English and for picking and choosing the kind of educational environment they wish to work in their price. This is the easiest way to find a job in China because whoever your employer is, that person will bend over backwards to make sure you get the proper immigration documents to allow you to legally stay in the country for longer than the 30 - 90 days that a tourist is usually allotted.

If you wish to be paid a U.S. salary, but live on a Chinese budget, then apply for the U.S. State Department. There is a written and oral exam. During the oral exam, note that your first preference is to have a job in China, ask to work in the Admin Section of the Consulate and do not show any emotion during the oral interview phase of the examination. You'll be checking visas for the first two years of your stay, but you will surely have a job in China and a nice place to stay on U.S. soil in mainland China.

If you can get a job with a major U.S. newspaper with a branch in Beijing or Shanghai, I suggest you try going that path as well. Since China is like the Wild West of the 1800s right now, it is always changing and there is always so much news that is happening.

Relate:
What are the advantages of teaching and learning in China?

What are the advantages of teaching and learning in China?

It is an excellent way to learn about the Chinese culture, customs, and behavior. You can teach English to the Chinese and share your culture with them, but also can learn Mandarin Chinese from them. Besides, you will make many friends with both the locals and other foreign teachers and build useful network.

It is especially helpful if you want to pursue an international career in the future, as China is a rapidly developing country and is playing a bigger role in the world economy and politics. Besides, you will be offered free accommodation, a salary, and in some cases, free meals, airfare reimbursement, and free excursions!

how to find a esl job in china?

HOW STUDENTS LEARN VS. HOW WE TEACH

Lion Gardiner's article is fairly long and not appropriate for posting (with permission) here. It contains, however, a number of salient points about how students learn and the rather ineffective job American education is doing in addressing their needs as learners. He writes:

... we find a substantial body of evidence that clearly demonstrates a crisis of educational quality in our nation's colleges and universities.

This crisis should evoke a serious and determined response from the entire professorate. But rather, ... we too often find complacency within our ranks. We seem to turn a blind eye to the quality of our educational processes and results. The busyness of daily routine and the seeming rightness of the familiar obscures the need to change.

What makes Gardiner's article very credible and powerful are the myriad studies and associated data he presents. Some excerpts:

• "We know that a strong relationship exists between students' formal operational ability and their success in their courses.

  Critical thinking is a form of higher-order cognition that society requires and faculty esteem. ...

  We urge our students to think critically and give them activities we believe will help them to learn how. Yet, 30 years of research show us that most of our students hold epistemological assumptions that prevent them from understanding and, therefore, engaging in critical thinking."

• "... the relationship between [students'] active involvement and effective learning is so strong that 'the effectiveness of any educational policy or practice is directly related to the capacity of that policy to increase involvement in learning.'

  Active involvement includes frequent student-faculty interaction, both in and outside of class."

• "For tens of thousands of students in a large national study, specific curricular design had little effect on most of 22 general education outcomes examined. The types or breadth of courses, specific courses available, or relative flexibility to choose among courses had little impact on these outcomes. On the other hand, a core curriculum had salutary effects on many developmental outcomes. ...

  These curricula, where students took, in common, interdisciplinary general education courses, represented less than 2 percent of the hundreds of curricula in the study."

• "One national study has revealed that only 35 percent of faculty strongly emphasize their institution's curricular goals. Only 12 percent utilize feedback from their earlier students, and 8 percent use the viewpoints of experts in instruction. The conclusion: 'The faculty interviewed seemed to teach as they had been taught ...'"

• "Faculty in another national study 'overwhelmingly' said developing effective thinking was their primary educational purpose, but most of the 4,000 course goals they submitted related to teaching concepts in their disciplines, rather than developing the intellectual skills they said were so important."

• "... involving students in discussion fosters retention of information, application of knowledge to new situations, and development of higher-order thinking skills -- and discussions do this much better than lectures do. ...

  ... Yet 70 to 90 percent of professors use the traditional lecture as their primary instructional strategy."

• "In a study of 155 class sessions at four different institutions, questioning of students comprised 0.2 percent to 9.2 percent of class time."

• "... in most courses, transmission of facts from teacher to students and discussion that requires only the recall of facts are the dominant class activities, regardless of discipline, the number of weeks into the semester, or size of institution.

  In one study, 89.3 percent of questions asked by the faculty required only recall to answer, not comprehension of concepts. ...

  In only 0.3 percent to 2.5 percent of class time were students required to use the much more complex skill of evaluation."

• "The median cognitive level in classes of 15 or fewer students was analysis. In classes of 16 to 45 students the median was comprehension. In large classes of 46 to 300 students the median intellectual activity was recall."

• "If students are not thinking during lectures, what are they doing? Their attention drifts after only 10 to 20 minutes. They are listening, asking or responding to questions, or taking notes only half of the time. Up to 15 percent of their time is spent fantasizing."

• "Only 14 percent of 745 research university students said they had ever been formally taught how to study, in high school or in college."

• "... how much course content do students retain? Studies sometimes find rare high values where students retain 50 percent of the content, but values of 20 percent or less are common."

• "Although engineering students used memorized formulas successfully to solve physics problems, there were 'widespread misconceptions' when they were required to provide 'coherent verbal descriptions of abstract concepts' inherent in the problems.

  After watching their teachers work 1,000 problems in class and solving another 3,000 themselves outside class, 'after four years, engineering students showed negligible improvement in problem-solving skills."

• "The 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey of 26,000 native-born Americans discovered major deficiencies in two- and four-year college graduates' ability to work with text and numbers in straightforward, pre-college tasks such as understanding the meaning of newspaper articles, using bus timetables, and calculating prices of supermarket items."

• "Only 17 percent of 1,700 faculty respondents at a research university said they use essay tests. These same respondents claimed only 13 percent of their questions required problem-solving."

• "... numerous studies demonstrate widespread cheating among students on classroom tests, possibly involving 40 to 90 percent of all students. ...

  One-third of students [in a national study of 6,165 respondents] with A's and B+'s cheated, as did two-thirds of 6,000 students at 'highly selective' colleges."

• "For well over a decade we have been warned that if we do not put our academic house in order, others ... will step in to do so. They have begun to do this. We must act quickly."

SIX WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR NONVERBAL COMMUNICATIONS

It is not only what you say in the classroom that is important, but it's how you say it that can make the difference to students. Nonverbal messages are an essential component of communication in the teaching process.

Teachers should be aware of nonverbal behavior in the classroom for three major reasons:

• An awareness of nonverbal behavior will allow you to become better receivers of students' messages.

• You will become a better sender of signals that reinforce learning.

• This mode of communication increases the degree of the perceived psychological closeness between teacher and student.

Some major areas of nonverbal behaviors to explore are:

• Eye contact
• Facial expressions
• Gestures
• Posture and body orientation
• Proximity
• Paralinguistics
• Humor

Eye contact:

Eye contact, an important channel of interpersonal communication, helps regulate the flow of communication. And it signals interest in others. Furthermore, eye contact with audiences increases the speaker's credibility. Teachers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth and credibility.

Facial expressions:

Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits:

• Happiness
• Friendliness
• Warmth
• Liking
• Affiliation

Thus, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and students will react favorably and learn more.

Gestures:

If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring, stiff and unanimated. A lively and animated teaching style captures students' attention, makes the material more interesting, facilitates learning and provides a bit of entertainment. Head nods, a form of gestures, communicate positive reinforcement to students and indicate that you are listening.

Posture and body orientation:

You communicate numerous messages by the way you walk, talk, stand and sit. Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward communicates to students that you are approachable, receptive and friendly. Furthermore, interpersonal closeness results when you and your students face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided; it communicates disinterest to your class.

Proximity:

Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with students. You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading students' space. Some of these are:

• Rocking
• Leg swinging
• Tapping
• Gaze aversion

Typically, in large college classes space invasion is not a problem. In fact, there is usually too much distance. To counteract this, move around the classroom to increase interaction with your students. Increasing proximity enables you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for students to speak.

Paralinguistics:

This facet of nonverbal communication includes such vocal elements as:

• Tone
• Pitch
• Rhythm
• Timbre
• Loudness
• Inflection

For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms is of instructors who speak in a monotone. Listeners perceive these instructors as boring and dull. Students report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to teachers who have not learned to modulate their voices.

Humor:

Humor is often overlooked as a teaching tool, and it is too often not encouraged in college classrooms. Laughter releases stress and tension for both instructor and student. You should develop the ability to laugh at yourself and encourage students to do the same. It fosters a friendly classroom environment that facilitates learning. (Lou Holtz wrote that when his players felt successful he always observed the presence of good humor in the locker room.)

Obviously, adequate knowledge of the subject matter is crucial to your success; however, it's not the only crucial element. Creating a climate that facilitates learning and retention demands good nonverbal and verbal skills. To improve your nonverbal skills, record your speaking on video tape. Then ask a colleague in communications to suggest refinements.

TIPS TO IMPROVE INTERACTION AMONG THE GENERATIONS

Values can collide when members of different generations work and learn together. Having a better understanding of others can make the working and learning environment more productive. What generations are generally represented in today's society? Traditionalists Baby Boomers Generation Xers Nexters or Generation Y The Baby Boomers make up the largest percentage of the population today according to U.S. Census statistics. Boomers consist of people currently between the ages of 37-55 (born between 1947-1965). When we discuss the generations in our society, we can't forget the Boomers' parents. These are the Traditionalists, War Babies or Veterans, who are now older than 55. How about our younger generations? The Generation Xers are people in the 25-36 age group (born between 1966-1977). Last are our youngest citizens, the Nexters or Generation Y, representing people age 7-24 (born between 1978 and 1995). These are the cyber kids who grew up with the Internet, and speed and access to information is something that they are accustomed to. What Do The Members of Each Generation Value? Fundamental value differences exist between those of different generations. Understanding these values may help understand differences that may arise in the learning environment. Organizational development scholar, Dr. Morris Massey, began looking at generational values and argues that our behaviors are driven by our value system or our value programming. He offers that what we are now is closely rooted to what we were when we were value programmed. If we examine the value system shared by generational groups then we can better understand their diverse beliefs and behaviors. We don't have to agree with the values of different generations but we can strive to understand the mind-sets of different generations and how each group sees the world based on their experiences. While it's important to recognize that many dimensions of diversity from race, sex, sexual orientation, geographic location, etc., shape who we are and how we behave, we can generalize values based on generations. Let's take a look at some of the espoused values or beliefs held by each of the generations so that you will be better able to appreciate the challenge that we face as an educator trying to create an inclusive learning environment. Please note that these are generalizations and will not apply to all members of a particular generation.

TRADITIONALISTS

Traditionalists values are influenced by the experiences of their parents whose values go back to the 1800s. This generation experienced the Great Depression and World War II both of which shape how they view the world. Traditionalists Value... o Privacy: Traditionalists are the private, silent generation. Don't expect members of this generation to share their inner thoughts. o Hard Work: They believe in paying their dues and become irritated when they perceive others are wasting their time. Members of this generation often feel that their career identifies who they are. o Trust: A traditionalist's word is his/her bond. o Formality: Whether written or in oral communication a formal communication style is preferred. This generation values formal dress and organizational structures. o Authority and institutional leadership: Traditionalists have a great deal of respect for authority. o Social Order: Other generations may view this desire for social order and placement as bias, prejudice or even racism or sexism. o Things: This group loves their stuff and they won't get rid of it. Some may call them pack rats but others would argue that they remember the depression days and going with out. You never know when you might need it. Supportive Behaviors and Tips For Communicating with Traditionalists... o By nature Traditionalists are private, the "silent generation". Don't expect members of this generation to share their thoughts immediately. o For the Traditionalist a educator's word is his/her bond, so it's important to focus on words rather than body language or inferences. o Face to face or written communication is preferred. o Don't waste their time, or let them feel as though their time is being wasted.

BABY BOOMERS

Morris Massey calls this group the Nuagers. This generation represents the children of our World War II veterans. They did not go through economically hard times as their parents did, they had the good life - the Traditionalists wanted them to have the best and as a result, the "Me" decade arrived. Baby Boomers Value... o Competition: Boomers value peer competition and can be see by others as being egocentric. o Change: Boomers thrive for possibilities and constant change. o Hard Work: Boomers started the "workaholic" trend. The difference between Traditionalists and Boomers is that Boomers value the hard work because they view it as necessary for moving to the next level of success while Traditionalists work hard because they feel that it is the right thing to do. o Success: This generation is committed to climbing the ladder of success. o Body Language: Boomers are the show me generation and body language is important. o Teamwork: This group embraces a team based approach to business-they are eager to get rid of the command and control style of their Traditionalist predecessors. o Anti Rules and Regulations: They don't appreciate rules for the sake of having rules and they will challenge the system. o Inclusion: This generation will accept people on an equal basis as long as they can perform to their standards. o Will Fight For A Cause: While they don't like problems, if you give them a cause they will fight for it. Supportive Behaviors & Tips For Communicating With Baby Boomers... o Boomers are the "show me" generation, so your body language is important when communicating. o Speak in an open, direct style but avoid controlling language. o Answer questions thoroughly and expect to be pressed for the details. o Present options to demonstrate flexibility in your thinking.

GENERATION XERS

Morris Massey refers to this group as the Syn-Tech generation. This generation is both economically conservative, remembering double-digit inflation and the stress that their parents faced during times of on and off unemployment. Unlike their predecessors, they will not rely on institutions for their long-term security. Generation Xers Value... o Entrepreneurial Spirit: Xers believe in investing in their own development rather than in their organization's. While others may see them as disloyal they are cautious about investing in relationships with employers because experience has shown that these relationships are not reliable. Cavalier as it may sound, one Xer told a Boomer that if you want loyalty get a dog. o Loyalty: To an Xer, this may mean two-weeks notice. o Independence and Creativity: Xers have clear goals and prefer managing their own time and solving their own problems rather than having them managed by a supervisor. o Information: They value access to information and love plenty of it. o Feedback: This group needs continuous feedback and they use the feedback to adapt to new situations. This generation is flexible. o Quality of Worklife: This generation works hard but they would rather find quicker more efficient ways of working so that they have time for fun. While Boomers are working hard to move up the ladder, Xers are working hard so that they can have more time to balance work and life responsibilities. Supportive Behaviors & Tips for Communicating With Generation X... o Use email as a primary communication tool. o Talk in short sound bites to keep their attention. o Ask them for their feedback and provide them with regular feedback. o Share information with them on a regular basis and strive to keep them in the loop. o Use an informal communication style.

GENERATION Y (Also Called Nexters)

If you think that Generation Xers were challenging for Traditionalists and Boomers to teach just wait until Generation Y arrives. Generation Y represents people who have grown up during the high tech revolution. They have never known a world without high speed video games, speed dial and ATMs. The secret to motivating this group is to provide systematic and frequent feedback - as it happens. Generation Y Values... o Positive Reinforcement: Members of this cyber generation value positive reinforcement at accelerated rates compared to older generations. o Autonomy: This group wants more input into how they are learning and the independence to do it. o Positive Attitudes: This group grew up during tranquil times and as a result have a very optimistic outlook on life in general. o Diversity: This group grew up with more diversity than their predecessors and if not exposed to it in their community then they were introduced diverse people and cultures through the media. o Money: This group is used to making and spending money. o Technology: Technology is valued and is used as a tool for multi-tasking. Supportive Behaviors & Tips for Communicating With Generation Y... o Use action words and challenge them at every opportunity. o They will resent it if you talk down to them. o They prefer email communication. o Seek their feedback constantly and provide them with regular feedback.. o Use humor and create a fun learning environment. Don't take yourself too seriously. o Encourage them to take risks and break the rules so that they can explore new ways of learning.

Managing the Generational Mix

How do we keep a generationally diverse group of learners motivated in today's environment? The first step to making the generational diversity work is to understand what motivates members of different generations and to institute teaching techniques that are flexible enough to meet their needs. In today's complex mix of generations, Traditionalists are found with Boomers and Boomers with Generation Xers. Trends toward later retirements mean that traditionalists are still happy working and learning and Generation Xers are quickly moving into positions of power and influence where they are supervising and educating members of older generations. Educators are beginning to recognize that the changing demographics of the learning environment can affect morale and productivity. Companies like Pitney Bowes have incorporated an intergenerational component to leadership training. Executives experience how different generations react and interact with each other. Chairman and CEO Michael Critelli also focuses on opening the channels of communication by encouraging employees of all levels to email questions and comments to him. The company has also focused on creating a more fun working environment to address the needs of incoming generations. Pitney Bowes also strives to match people with their jobs and to ensure that they are continuously challenged. Other successful companies such as TGI Fridays, Ben & Jerry's and Lucent Technologies understand that it is important to focus not only on what needs to get done but on accommodating the work and learning styles of the various generations. Lucent Technologies instituted a training center called IdeaVerse that focuses on creativity. Another company created what they call generational play grounds, from cafe.com an on-site coffee house attracting twenty somethings to a bookstore which carries the latest in self actualization books which seems to attract the Boomer generation.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

As teachers we tend to ask questions in the "knowledge" category 80% to 90% of the time. These questions are not bad, but using them all the time is. Try to utilize higher order level of questions. These questions require much more "brain power" and a more extensive and elaborate answer. Below are the six question categories as defined by Bloom.

KNOWLEDGE

remembering

memorizing

recognizing

recalling identification

recalling information

who, what, when, where, how ...?

describe

COMPREHENSION

interpreting

translating from one medium to another

describing in one's own words

organization and selection of facts and ideas

retell...

APPLICATION

problem solving

applying information to produce some result

use of facts, rules and principles

how is ... an example of ...?

how is ... related to ...?

why is ... significant?

ANALYSIS

subdividing something to show how it is put together

finding the underlying structure of a communication

identifying motives

separation of a whole into component parts

what are the parts or features of ...?

classify ... according to ...

outline/diagram ...

how does ... compare/contrast with ...?

what evidence can you list for ...?

SYNTHESIS

creating a unique, original product that may be in verbal form or may be a physical object

combination of ideas to form a new whole

what would you predict/infer from ...?

what ideas can you add to ...?

how would you create/design a new ...?

what might happen if you combined ...?

what solutions would you suggest for ...?

EVALUATION

making value decisions about issues

resolving controversies or differences of opinion

development of opinions, judgements or decisions

do you agree that ...?

what do you think about ...?

what is the most important ...?

place the following in order of priority ...

how would you decide about ...?

what criteria would you use to assess ...?

ANSWERING AND ASKING QUESTIONS

Introduction

This paper is concerned with the answering and asking of questions in college-level courses. It makes suggestions regarding questioning techniques that are appropriate for lecture classes as well as for discussion groups. We have adapted the approach used by Hyman (1974) because it has been found by many instructors to be a useful way to understand what goes on in class. Therefore, throughout the paper we will use the terms "question," "answer" (response), and "reaction" as follows: question (Q) -- any eliciting of an answer (response) regardless of grammatical form answer (A) -- any response that fulfills the expectation of the question reaction (R) -- any response that modifies (clarifies, expands) or rates (positively or negatively) a previous statement (question, answer, or another reaction) EXAMPLE: "Who is president of the United States?" (Q) "That's too easy." (R to Q) "No it isn't" (R to R) "George Washington." (A to Q) In general, when considering changing an approach to your teaching, ask yourself: What exactly goes on in class? What do I do? What do the students do? For example, imagine yourself in class when one of the students asks you a question. What do you usually do? It is quite possible that you simply answer it. If your goal is to increase the students' knowledge, this is quite appropriate. However, if your goal is to develop the students' thinking skills, you may wish to begin a dialogue or use another technique to help the students discover their own answers. It may be that when you try to recall how you act in class, you cannot remember clearly. Video or audiotaping your class can provide a wealth of detail, and in a format where you can replay portions or can play it for one or more of your colleagues.

I. Students Asking Questions

What are some things that you can do when asked a question other than directly answering it? Repeat the question, paraphrasing it. This serves two purposes: it insures that the entire class hears the question. More importantly, it lets the questioner check your understanding of his or her question. When you have not completely understood, often the student will rephrase or elaborate upon the question. In doing so the student is often "thinking out loud" and may come to his or her own conclusions without further help. This process also gives the other students time to think about the question and possible answers to it. EXAMPLE (Introductory Psychology): Student: "You've said that learning is defined as changes in behavior that result from past experience, but can't people learn without any change being apparent?" (Q1) Instructor: "You're questioning whether learning has to be tied to observable change (R to Q1), right Ann?" (Q2) Student: "Right. (A to Q2) Although given our definition of psychology, I guess it would have to be perceivable in some way." (R to Q2 and A to Q1) Redirect the question. You might ask another student (one who might know the answer) to respond. Or you might redirect the question to the class in general, asking for an answer or comment, or an elaboration upon the issue. This procedure not only encourages more student participation, but it also implies that peers are a resource for learning. EXAMPLE (Seminar on Urban Problems): Student 1: "If people know about all of these harmful effects that pollute the environment, why doesn't the government stop the polluters?" (Q1) Instructor: "Bill is asking, why don't our political leaders do something about those things that we know hurt the environment." (R to Q1, paraphrasing it.) "What are some reasons the rest of you can think of that might explain this apparently illogical behavior?" (Q2, redirecting Q1 to the entire class.) Student 2: "Well, many of the things people do that cause pollution also have a lot of benefits: factories produce goods we want, provide jobs, etc." (A to Q1 and Q2) Ask probing questions. You might respond to the student's question by directing her (or his) attention to a particular aspect of the issue she has raised, or drawing her attention to some previously learned course material that is relevant to answering the question or by going beyond what the student has said in some way. The intent of probing questions is to draw the student's attention to things that may be only implied in her answer, and so help her answer her own question. EXAMPLE (American History): Student: "I think you can argue that the American Revolution wasn't justified. The colonists were better off than most Europeans." (Q1) Instructor: "That's a good point, Cindy." (R to Q1, praising student) "It might help if we considered how the British government treated the colonists compared with their treatment of people living in England. (Q2) DD>Student: "Well, it was true that the colonists thought that they were not given the rights of British citizens." (A to Q2) COMMENT: The instructor's question (Q2) focuses upon comparing the colonists with Englishmen rather than with other Europeans. The instructor implies that this is a more appropriate comparison (because the colonists thought of themselves as deserving the rights of Englishmen). Promote a discussion among the students. The three previous suggestions usually involve communication between two people, typically the instructor and one student, with the rest of the class simply listening. It may be that you will want to involve the majority of students in trying to answer some questions, for example, where there is considerable difference of opinion about the answer. EXAMPLE (Human Sexuality): Student 1: It really seems to me that abortion has to be considered murder, no matter what "justification" people give for it. Student 2: I disagree, that is just repeating some abstract principle without considering the other side of the argument, for example, a woman who has been raped. Promote a discussion among the students. The three previous suggestions usually involve communication between two people, typically the instructor and one student, with the rest of the class simply listening. It may be that you will want to involve the majority of students in trying to answer some questions, for example, where there is considerable difference of opinion about the answer. EXAMPLE (Human Sexuality): Student 1: "It really seems to me that abortion has to be considered murder, no matter what "justification" people give for it." Student 2: "I disagree, that is just repeating some abstract principle without considering the other side of the argument, for example, a woman who has been raped." Instructor: "These two comments, together with other things members of the class have said, suggest to me that there are strong disagreements about abortion. I think it might help if we spent some time discussing it. I'd like you to get into buzz groups of three or four people each (see McKeachie, 1993, for a description of buzz groups) and spend about ten minutes coming up with as many arguments for and against abortion as you can. When you've finished we'll discuss them." One reaction we generally do not recommend when a student asks a question is to assign that student the task of looking up the answer. Frequently all this practice accomplishes is to teach the class not to ask questions.

II. Answering Questions

Because Part I concentrated upon ways to help students answer their own questions, the suggestions dealt with reactions to student questions rather than answers. The remaining parts of this guide discuss various aspects of questioning behavior that are not necessarily directed towards helping students answer their own questions. Directly answer the question. One obvious option an instructor has when a student asks a question is to answer it. In general, we do not recommend answering a student's question directly if you wish to foster thinking or problem-solving skills. However, when the questions ask for information that other students in the class are not likely to have (or questions asking for the instructor's opinion), directly answering the question is appropriate. Directly answering questions takes less time than attempting to have a student or the class come up with answers. If you choose to answer directly, make your answer brief and to the point. After responding you may want to check to see if you have really answered the question by saying something like: "Does that answer your question?" or "Was that what you were asking?" etc. Sometimes an instructor would like to use a student's question as an opportunity to bring in a related topic that the instructor wishes to cover, reasoning that students learn better when they see the material as relevant to their own interests. This should be done with care or it may only confuse everyone. Answer the student's questions first, then be explicit that you are covering something else that is on your agenda. EXAMPLE (Introduction to Literature): Student: "Who wrote the first novel in English?" (Q1) Instructor: "Most experts consider Samuel Richardson to be the first modern English novelist." (A to Q1) "He wrote Pamela in 1740." (R to A, elaborating on answer) "While we are on the topic of the novel, I'd like to ...." (Instructor clues the class that she is going beyond the student's question.) COMMENT: It is not unusual when the instructor herself is handling a discussion or recitation section of a course for which she gives the lectures, to use the occasion of students' asking questions about material previously covered to add new material that could not be included in the lectures because of lack of time. We recommend against this because it may serve only to confuse the students and make them feel less positive about the course when compared with recitation sections handled by GTA's who primarily answer questions to clarify those parts of the lecture that some students did not understand. Postpone answering the question. Students are more likely to learn and remember if the instructor answers their questions when they ask them. Nevertheless, on certain occasions you may decide to put off answering a question, for instance: when you are very short of time, especially if the answer is complex, or when the material will be covered in an upcoming class, or when the answer is of interest to only a few students. When the material is covered later, call it to the student's attention: "Here is the answer to the question you asked before, Frank ...." If the answer will not be covered during the course, we recommend that you offer to answer it after class or make an appointment to get together with the student sometime. By doing this you very clearly communicate to all of the students your willingness to try to answer their questions. Generally, you should answer more questions than you postpone or you are likely to find the students asking fewer and fewer questions. EXAMPLE (Physiology): Student: "Doctor, I still don't really understand the Kreb's cycle, could we review it, please?" (Q1) Instructor: "Fred, we're running out of time." (R to Q1) "Can you see me after class and we'll arrange a time when we can get together for a half hour or so?" (Q2) "For now follow as best you can." (Further reaction to Q1 letting student know that the instructor is aware of the learning problem.) Discourage inappropriate questions. Usually students ask questions because they wish to learn, but sometimes a student will ask a question to sidetrack the class, to get attention, or even to embarrass the instructor. Handling such questions presents a dilemma. If you treat them like other questions you may encourage the student to ask more of the same, but if you turn that student down abruptly you may discourage not only that student but the rest of the class from asking any kind of question. In reacting, it is probably best to tactfully indicate what about the question is inappropriate. EXAMPLE (Physics 1): Instructor: "Any questions about the material we covered last class?" (Q1) Student: "I don't have a question about that" (A1 to Q1), "but I was reading about a physicist who has a theory about racial inferiority and I don't see what right a physicist has to teach something like that outside of his field." (Q2) Instructor: "That's a legitimate question, Gail, since this is an introductory physics course," (R to Q2, supporting student) "but it takes us pretty far afield from vectors and forces." (Further reaction, raising issue of appropriateness) "How many students would like to spend some class time talking about Gail's question?" (Q3) Student: (Only five students raise their hands. Their action can be considered A2 to Q3) Instructor: "Well, why don't you five see me after class and we can set up a time to get together to discuss it?" (R to A2) COMMENT: If a majority of the class indicated an interest in discussing the topic, perhaps the instructor would want to spend some of the class' time, especially if one of the important objectives of the course was for the students to gain a broader understanding and appreciation of science. It seems to us that lecture outlines and course syllabi are not railroad tracks that you must never leave, rather they are the main road that you intend to travel, but with time for some interesting side trips. On the other hand, if the primary objective of the course was for the students to learn skills needed in their prospective professions, the instructor might suggest a meeting outside of class or perhaps recommend one or two articles discussing the question that interested students could then read. New teachers especially are often uncertain about how to tell whether a student really wants an answer or has some other purpose. This is probably best learned through experience and new teachers will have to risk relying on their own judgment. One criterion is how relevant the point of the question is to what the class is trying to learn. Admit when you do not know an answer. If you do not know the answer to a student's question, we recommend that you say so. Although one of the roles of a college teacher is that of "expert" and "information source," admitting that you do not know the answer to a question will probably not damage the students' confidence in you. In fact, giving the students clues about how certain you are of your answers is likely to increase their confidence in you, for example: "The experts agree that....," "as I recall they found....," "I'll have to look that up....," etc. On the other hand, if you try to fake it, there is a good chance the students will find you out and your credibility will be seriously damaged. Unless the question is tangential to the objectives of the course, we recommend that you assume responsibility for finding the answer to questions you do not know and report back to the entire class. EXAMPLE (Food Management): Student: "What effect does the use of the preservative BHT have on the mount of breakage in cookies?" (Q1) Instructor: "That's a good question, Howard" (R to Q1), "unfortunately I don't have a good answer; I don't know." (A1 to Q1) "I'll have to find out and let you know." (Further reaction to Q1) Instructor: (Next class) "Regarding Howard's question last class about the effect of BHT on the breakage of cookies, what they have found is ...." (A2 to Q1)

III. Asking Questions

Ask open-ended, not just close-ended questions. A close-ended question structures the response for the student and can be answered by one word, often "yes" or "no", or by a very brief phrase. An open-ended question leaves the form of the answer up to the person answering and so elicits much more thinking or information. EXAMPLE (Counseling): Instructor A: "If one of your counselees told you that she had plagiarized most of her doctoral dissertation, would you report it to her major professor?" (Closed-ended question. Can be answered by a "yes" or "no.") Instructor B: "If one of your counselees told you that he had plagiarized most of his doctoral dissertation, would you report it directly to his major professor, inform the major professor anonymously, or say nothing?" (This is also a closed-ended question, the instructor has given the student three choices.) Instructor C: "If one of your counselees told you that she had plagiarized most of her doctoral dissertation, what action would you take concerning informing her major professor?" (Open-ended, probing question leaves choices of answer up to the student.) Closed-ended questions are most appropriate when the instructor wants to check whether the students have learned or remembered specific information, or to get or keep their attention. If an instructor wishes to encourage student involvement, open-ended questions are preferable because they require a more complex student response. Instructors sometimes complain that students never enter into a discussion, that they answer only in monosyllables. This may be because that is the only kind of answers our questions permit. Ask divergent as well as convergent questions. The distinction between convergent and divergent questions is whether there is a single or accepted "correct" answer (to a convergent question) or are there a number of possible answers, many of which may be acceptable (to divergent questions). Convergent questions may expect the student to repeat some conventional wisdom. Divergent questions often require new, creative insights. EXAMPLE (Sociology): Instructor: "According to our textbook, in what ways does the present welfare system solve the problems of poverty?" (Convergent question, the range of acceptable answers is determined by the textbook.) Instructor: "What are some ways in which the country might solve the problems of poverty?" (Divergent question, a wide range of acceptable answers are possible.) COMMENT: Notice that question 1 is an open-ended question even though a convergent one. Convergent questions are often closed-ended; divergent questions must always be open-ended. Some answers to divergent questions may be more acceptable than others in terms of logical consistency, synthesis of relevant data, solutions of major aspects of the problem, etc. The major advantage in asking divergent questions is that the task they set for the students is to think about an issue or problem, not to discover the "correct" answer or the answer the teacher is looking for. Usually students are more willing to attempt answering divergent questions because they run less of a risk of giving a "wrong" answer. Also divergent questions require a "higher" level of thinking (cf. Gronlund, 1985). They cannot be answered from just memory (unless the student has already been exposed to answers to the question in a lecture, reading, etc.). We have emphasized divergent questions because they are employed less frequently, even in college-level instruction. We do not mean to imply that instructors should not ask convergent questions. In so far as what is taught at the college-level deals with correct answers, convergent questions are obviously appropriate. What we do wish to caution against is using mainly convergent questions, especially when trying to teach divergent thinking!

IV. Pauses and Silence

One difficulty found by both novice and veteran instructors is deciding how to handle pauses and silence after asking a question. We will argue that pauses and silence can play a useful role in both lecture and discussion classes. Wait, pauses and silence are not inappropriate class behaviors. The discomfort many, if not most, instructors feel when a pause leads to an extended silence probably stems from a cultural norm for social conversation where the silence is taken to mean that there is some inadequacy in the communication. This discomfort often is especially acute for new teachers or teachers who lack self-confidence. If such an instructor were to tape record his class, he might find that these pauses actually last only a few seconds, very often less than five, not the "eternity" it seemed during the wait. In the classroom, constant talking is neither required nor desirable. Wait, give the students time to think. The basic reason for pausing after asking a question is to give the students time to think about possible answers. If the question is worthwhile (and more than rhetorical), even at the memory level, it deserves a wait. Questions at higher levels require considerable time-minutes-for students to think before they can adequately answer. After an appropriate wait (listening to tape recordings of one's class is a useful means of checking whether the length of the pause was appropriate), you may want to simply acknowledge the pause by saying something like: "It's a difficult question and takes some time to think about." This clues the students that you are willing to wait for their responses. Or you may want to rephrase the question or ask a probing question which would draw the students' attention to relevant information. If you really want the students to answer the question, you must give them enough time. You might want to try one or more of the active learning techniques (cf. Bonwell & Eison, 1991). Give the students a few minutes to write out an answer. Have the students work in groups of two or three to solve the problem, or propose possible solutions. Such techniques require that all of the students are actively working on the answer, not just the smarter or faster students. Wait, or you will establish an undesirable norm. Classes, like any group, fairly quickly establish norms, that is, standards of what will be considered acceptable behavior in that group. If, in the first week or two of class, the instructor waits only a few seconds before answering her (or his) own questions, the class will quickly learn that when the instructor asks a question she does not expect an answer; wait a few seconds and she will answer it herself. Students are often more than willing to let the instructor answer all of the questions. If you want your students to answer the questions you ask, you must be careful to cultivate that expectation by waiting after you ask a question.

V. Creating an Accepting Atmosphere

If encouraging students to ask questions is desirable behavior in most college classrooms, then it is also desirable that the instructor create an atmosphere where students are not afraid to ask questions for fear of embarrassment, etc. Ask for questions. If you want the students to ask questions, give them opportunities to do so. Pause after making an important point or explaining a topic, or say "Any questions?" or "Are you with me?" or "Do you want me to say more?" However, such statements must be more than rhetorical or used as a technique for you to get your thoughts together before going to the next point. Give the students time to formulate their questions before you move on. Also, look at the students to make sure you do not miss someone with his or her hand up. We think pausing and asking for questions is an effective teaching device to use routinely; but if you are aware that some students are confused, it becomes a must. When some students are frowning or shaking their heads saying something like, "Some of you seem puzzled, what don't you understand?" should solicit questions that will help you clear up the misunderstanding. Some college professors feel that they have done their duty by professing the material to the students. We believe that unless instructors help their students to learn, they are not teaching. Answer questions. If you want your students to ask questions, then you should reinforce them when they do by answering their questions. Therefore we suggest that you rarely postpone answering a question or ignore student questions, which is what we do if you do not call upon a student who has his hand up. It is not unusual in a class of any size to have one or more students who tend to monopolize class time. One approach with such students is to give preference to those who have not yet said anything. This can be done explicitly by saying, "Let's take comments from people we haven't heard from," or "Vincent, I've already answered several of your questions, let's hear from some of the others first." Very often other students will ask "Vincent's question" and so he will get his answers but others will have a chance to participate. If he still has a question after everyone else's has been answered, you probably should let him ask it. Also it is not uncommon for a class to have at least one student who appears to be antagonistic toward the instructor or hostile to the subject matter and who asks questions that serve only to express the student's disagreements, which often have little generalizability to the rest of the class. Because such questions usually stem from emotional rather than intellectual concerns, answering only on a cognitive level serves little purpose. It is probably best to see that student outside of class and explain what seems to be going on from your point of view. Often such a talk is sufficient to enable the student at least to censor the questions he or she asks in class, although it may do little to solve the underlying problem. Answer students questions adequately. It is not enough that you respond to the student's questions, but you must answer the question to the student's satisfaction as best as you can. Your answer should be concise and to the point, and you should ask the student if you have answered the question. This fosters both accurate communication of content and says to the student "Your question is important and I will take the time necessary to answer it if I can." If, after two or three attempts, you still have not answered satisfactorily, and other students cannot help answer it, then it is appropriate to suggest getting together after class. Listen to the question, or to any student comments. The way you listen to a question or comment also communicates your attitude toward the students. In most U.S. cultures look at the students when they are talking; show that you are following by nodding, etc.; check whether you really understand what they are saying by rephrasing the question. Sometimes little things that we do unknowingly communicate something to students that is very different from what we intend. For example, one instructor used to occasionally take a look at his watch when a student would ask a question. He found out in the end-of course evaluation that one student interpreted this to mean that the instructor felt the questions were wasting time, rather than that the instructor simply wanted to know what time it was. Do not put down the students. In general, you should avoid anything which would embarrass the student who asks the question. Here are a few instructor responses well-calculated to insure that the student asking the question will not ask any more questions. We have suggested possible alternatives. EXAMPLES Poor: You should know that we covered that in.... Better: What about ... that we covered ... weeks ago? How does that fit in? Poor: You're completely wrong. Better: How would you reconcile what you're saying with ...(something previously covered)? Poor: I entirely disagree. Better: I'm not sure I agree, (or I think I disagree) because ... Rather than responding with a value judgment to a student's question or comment, ask a probing question. You may help the student arrive at the correct answer, or an acceptable answer; in which case, rather than proving the student "wrong, you have helped him or her to be "right."

Post Script

We hope that the distinctions and suggestions made in this paper will enable you to gain a clearer view of your classroom questioning behavior and so will help you to improve by increasing the number of alternatives available to you when considering how to handle questions in your classes. We would like to repeat our conviction that there is no one, correct approach -- several roads lead to Rome. The approach you finally decide upon will depend upon you, your students, your course objectives, and other unique considerations.

References and Further Readings

Bonwell, C. C.; Eison, J. A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement In the Classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, No. 1. Washington, DC: George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development. Christensen, C. R. (1991). "The Discussion Teacher In Action: Questioning, Listening, and Response." In C. R. Christensen, D. A. Garvin; A. Sweet (Eds.), The Artistry of Discussion Leadership (pp. 153-172). Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Gronlund, N. E. (1985). Stating Objectives for Classroom Instruction (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan. Hyman, R. T. (1974). Ways of Teaching (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. Hyman, R. T. (1979). Strategic Questioning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hyman, R.T. (1980). Improving Discussion Leadership. New York: Teachers College Press. McKeachie,W.J. (1994). Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers. (9th ed.). Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.

THE MOST IMPORTANT DAY: STARTING WELL

Introduction

The first day of class is a very important time for faculty to establish a tone for what will happen the rest of the term. It is appropriate that a teacher reflect on just what climate and first impression she/he would like to establish. This article offers some ideas about that all important day. Reflecting on the first day of class, McKeachie (1986) suggests that "... meeting a group of strangers who will affect your well being, is at the same time exciting and anxiety producing for both students and teacher." Research on the first day of class by Knefelkamp showed there was a real desire on the part of both students and teachers for connectedness, but neither group realized the other shared that desire. If the participants on both sides don't understand how to develop their relationships, learning will be diminished. If you have experienced some anxiety about this meeting, planning some specific steps can not only reduce that feeling, but can get students to share in the sense of purpose you hold for the class. Some faculty avoid the "first day anxiety" by handing out a syllabus, giving an assignment, and dismissing the class. This only postpones the inevitable. It also gives students a sense that class time is not too important. Most of all, it loses the opportunity to use the heightened excitement and anticipation that students bring that day; the chance to direct that excitement toward enthusiasm for the class. What can you do to establish a positive beginning? How can you make sure student's attitudes toward you, the course, and the subject matter will support a constructive learning climate for the semester? The following ideas have been gathered to stimulate your thoughts about these questions. Perhaps you will think of others, but the following are things which could contribute to this goal. They are not in a particular order, but can be sampled to fit your own preferences.

Enthusiasm

Conveying a sense of enthusiasm for the content is important. Scholl-Buchwald suggests that professors "Rarely ... need to impress students with our command of the material. What is not always clear to students is whether we are interested in the subject and whether we will be able to help them become as competent as we are." He suggests that one way to demonstrate enthusiasm is to talk about yourself and your own excitement about what you teach. What intrigues you, and what could interest them? Another approach is to give a short lecture or lead a discussion to stimulate interest in the problem-solving that this subject matter could enable students to do. Consider core ideas, typical problems in the field, cutting-edge discoveries, commonly held myths, provocative insights/interpretations or other stimulating insights into the field. Do you have slides or videotapes to enhance these images of inquiry? What interesting, related research is going on here at UNL? How might this have impact on their lives? How can you relate these ideas to their own experiences? Perhaps an interesting experiment or problem to solve can introduce the field.

Ice-Breakers

Opening communications among students as well as between yourself and students will pay dividends throughout the semester. Exercises which do this are called "icebreakers" and can take many forms such as the following: Have students raise hands indicating whether they are freshmen, sophomores, juniors, or seniors; majors, nonmajors, or other interests; those who have had related course and those who haven't; or other categories of student descriptors. This will immediately initiate participation and can give you useful information about the students. Have each person introduce themselves and give some information you and other students can associate with the person. This could be hometown, field, questions they have, why they took the course, what they did this summer, etc. Include yourself in the introductions. Use a "naming cycle" in which students introduce one another with each successive person repeating names of all those already introduced. This can be a device to help you learn names quickly, and this will pay significant dividends in how students feel about you as an interested teacher. Have students interview one another and then have them introduce someone else on the next day. A variation could be to write a short sketch about the interviewed person to be turned in as well as being used for introductions. Have students complete an interest or experience survey from which the teacher would provide summarized feedback for discussion the second day. A variation could be oral student responses to the survey in class or responses with a show of hands. Select a key word from the course title and have students do an "association exercise" by reporting what first comes to mind, record answers on the chalkboard and use these to give an overview of the course. Ask students to suggest what problems or ideas they would like to see included in the course, or have them tell what they have heard about the course. Post these on the chalkboard and refer to the list when the syllabus is reviewed. Students can clarify or correct perceptions they have held.

Your Own Introduction

Who you are and what you are like is of great interest to new students. Learning in the classroom results from an interrelationship of people, and what students perceive about you can help support that interaction. Sometimes students never have the sense that the professor is a "real person," and they may respond in ways that would be unthinkable to someone they felt they knew. Sharing something about yourself can begin a constructive relationship. You might share your own experiences in the course when you first took it. How did you study it, when did it come together for you? Share what you as a teacher expect from them. What do you believe about teaching and learning? Who is responsible for what in an academic setting? What are your hopes for them when they have completed the course? Be sure to put your name on the board so they know what it is and how to spell it correctly. It is always surprising to find that many students don't know the names of their teachers. Let them know your attitudes about when and where it is appropriate to contact you outside of class. Are you willing to spend a few moments after each class for those questions which may not warrant an office visit? McKeachie suggests that the teacher "characteristics" most appreciated by students are: Enthusiasm and willingness to work to make the course worthwhile. Objectivity (the students will call it, "fairness"). A sympathetic attitude toward the problems of students Your attitudes in these areas would be useful topics to convey your values. Caution: Do not focus on your own inadequacies or limitations. This only increases the insecurity on the part of students, and may lead to their blaming their own limitations on the inadequacies you have identified.

Course Expectations

A well designed syllabus can go a long way toward clarifying expectations so students have a sense of knowing what they are to do. The teacher can give them the idea that he/she is prepared to help them learn, while also developing the sense of their own responsibility for achieving course goals. The syllabus usually includes: information about the course, policies, requirements, tests, assignments, texts, references, prerequisites, schedule, grading policies, etc. For more information on syllabus writing, see Teaching at UNL, Vol. 7, No. 1, August 1985 or the TLC Resource Room for detailed references.

Textbook Introduction

Tell students how you expect them to use the text in their learning, and what is useful about it. Do not criticize it or the author. This is not constructive and can undermine learning. If discrepancies occur between your views and the text, explain that rival interpretations exist, and give reasons for your choice. You can encourage realization that clear "truths" are not always agreed upon. Do clarify for students which ideas are acceptable for examinations purposes.

Student Questions

Provide an opportunity for students to ask questions about the course, you, the text or other aspects of the course. It is important to establish a sense that you are willing to change things they do not understand. Be accepting of all questions. This does not mean you need to change your plans, but you can listen to questions and be responsive to cmfication.

Student Feedback

At the end of the first class period, give students two minutes to write their reaction to the first day. These should be anonymous so you get an accurate sense of the students' views. This can provide feedback on doubts, or questions that students were afraid to raise. It can also begin to build a learning climate in which they have responsibility for thinking about learning in this class.

Checklist For The First Day

Am I energized to be enthusiastic about this class? Is the classroom arranged properly for the day's activities? Is my name, course title, and number on the chalkboard? Do I have an ice-breaker planned? Do I have a way to start leaming names? Do I have a way to gather information on student backgrounds, interests, expectations for the course, questions, concerns? Is the syllabus complete and clear? Have I outlined how students will be evaluated? Do I have announcements of needed information ready? Do I have a way of gathering student feedback? When the class is over; will students want to come back? Will you want to come back?

101 THINGS YOU CAN DO THE FIRST THREE WEEKS OF CLASS

Introduction

Beginnings are important. Whether the class is a large introductory course for freshmen or an advanced course in the major field, it makes good sense to start the semester off well. Students will decide very early - some say the first day of class - whether they will like the course, its contents, the teacher, and their fellow students. The following list of "101 Things You Can Do..." is offered in the spirit of starting off right. It is a catalog of suggestions for college teachers who are looking for a fresh way of creating the best possible environment for learning. Not just the first day, but the first three weeks of a course are especially important, studies say, in retaining capable students. Even if the syllabus is printed and lecture notes are ready to go in August, most college teachers can usually make adjustments in teaching methods as the course unfolds and the characteristics of their students become known. These suggestions have been gathered from UNL professors and from college teachers elsewhere. The rationale for these methods is based on the following needs: 1) to help students make the transition from high school and summer or holiday activities to learning in college; 2) to direct students' attention to the immediate situation for learning - the hour in the classroom: 3) to spark intellectual curiosity - to challenge students; 4) to support beginners and neophytes in the process of learning in the discipline; S) to encourage the students' active involvement in learning; and 6) to build a sense of community in the classroom.

Ideas For the First Three Weeks

Here, then, are some ideas for college teachers for use in their courses as they begin a new semester. Helping Students Make Transitions Hit the ground running on the first day of class with substantial content. Take attendance: roll call, clipboard, sign in, seating chart. Introduce teaching assistants by slide, short presentation, or self-introduction. Hand out an informative, artistic, and user-friendly syllabus. Give an assignment on the first day to be collected at the next meeting. Start laboratory experiments and other exercises the first time lab meets. Call attention (written and oral) to what makes good lab practice: completing work to be done, procedures, equipment, clean up, maintenance, safety, conservation of supplies, full use of lab time. Administer a learning style inventory to help students find out about themselves. Direct students to the Learning Skills Center for help on basic skills. Tell students how much time they will need to study for this course. Hand out supplemental study aids: library use, study tips, supplemental readings and exercises. Explain how to study for kind of tests you give. Put in writing a limited number of ground rules regarding absence, late work, testing procedures, grading, and general decorum, and maintain these. Announce office hours frequently and hold them without fail. Show students how to handle learning in large classes and impersonal situations. Give sample test questions. Give sample test question answers. Explain the difference between legitimate collaboration and academic dishonesty; be clear when collaboration is wanted and when it is forbidden. Seek out a different student each day and get to know something about him or her. Ask students to write about what important things are currently going on in their lives. Find out about students' jobs; if they are working, how many hours a week, and what kinds of jobs they hold. Directing Students' Attention Greet students at the door when they enter the classroom. Start the class on time. Make a grand stage entrance to hush a large class and gain attention. Give a pre-test on the day's topic. Start the lecture with a puzzle, question, paradox, picture, or cartoon on slide or transparency to focus on the day's topic. Elicit student questions and concerns at the beginning of the class and list these on the chalkboard to be answered during the hour. Have students write down what they think the important issues or key points of the day's lecture will be. Ask the person who is reading the student newspaper what is in the news today. Challenging Students Have students write out their expectations for the course and their own goals for learning. Use variety in methods of presentation every class meeting. Stage a figurative "coffee break" about twenty minutes into the hour; tell an anecdote, invite students to put down pens and pencils, refer to a current event, shift media. Incorporate community resources: plays, concerts, the State Fair. government agencies. businesses, the outdoors. Show a film in a novel way: stop it for discussion, show a few frames only, anticipate ending, hand out a viewing or critique sheet, play and replay parts. Share your philosophy of teaching with your students. Form a student panel to present alternative views of the same concept. Stage a change-your-mind debate. with students moving to different parts of the classroom to signal change in opinion during the discussion. Conduct a "living" demographic survey by having students move to different parts of the classroom: size of high school. rural vs. urban. consumer preferences... Tell about your current research interests and how you got there from your own beginnings in the discipline. Conduct a role-play to make a point or to lay out issues. Let your students assume the role of a professional in the discipline: philosopher, literary critic, biologist. agronomist. political scientist. engineer. Conduct idea-generating or brainstorming sessions to expand horizons. Give students two passages of material containing alternative views to compare and contrast. Distribute a list of the unsolved problems. dilemmas. or great questions in your discipline and invite students to claim one as their own to investigate. Ask students what books they've read recently. Ask what is going on in the state legislature on this subject which may affect their future. Let your students see the enthusiasm you have for your subject and your love of learning. Take students with you to hear guest speakers or special programs on campus. Plan "scholar-gypsy" lesson or unit which shows students the excitement of discovery in your discipline. Providing Support Collect students' current telephone numbers and addresses and let them know that you may need to reach them. Check out absentees. Call or write a personal note. Diagnose the students' prerequisites learning by questionnaire or pre-test ant give them the feedback as soon as possible. Hand out study questions or study guides. Be redundant. Students should hear, read. or see key material at least three times. Allow students to demonstrate progress in learning: summary quiz over the day's work. a written reaction to the day's material. Use non-graded feedback to let students know how they are doing: post answers to ungraded quizzes and problem sets, exercises in class, oral feedback. Reward behavior you want: praise, stars, honor roll, personal note. Use a light touch: smile, tell a good joke, break test anxiety with a sympathetic comment. Organize. Give visible structure by posting the day's "menu" on chalk- board or overhead. Use multiple media: overhead, slides, film, videotape, audio tape, models, sample material. Use multiple examples, in multiple media. to illustrate key points and . important concepts. Make appointments with all students (individually or in small groups). Hand out wallet-sized telephone cards with all important telephone numbers listed: office department, resource centers, teaching assistant, lab. Print all important course dates on a card that can be handed out and taped to a mirror. Eavesdrop on students before or after class and join their conversation about course topics. Maintain an open lab gradebook. with grades kept current. during lab time so that students can check their progress. Check to see if any students are having problems with any academic or campus matters and direct those who are to appropriate offices or resources. Tell students what they need to do to receive an "A" in your course. Stop the work to find out what your students are thinking feeling and doing in their everyday lives. Encouraging Active Learning Have students write something. Have students keep three-week-three-times-a-week journals in which they comment. ask questions. and answer questions about course topics. Invite students to critique each other's essays or short answer on tests for readability or content. Invite students to ask questions and wait for the response. Probe student responses to questions ant wait for the response. Put students into pairs or "learning cells" to quiz each other over material for the day. Give students an opportunity to voice opinions about the subject matter. Have students apply subject matter to solve real problems. Give students red, yellow, and green cards (mate of posterboard) and periodically call for a vote on an issue by asking for a simultaneous show of cards. Roam the aisles of a large classroom and carry on running conversations with students as they work on course problems (a portable microphone helps). Ask a question directed to one student and wait for an answer. Place a suggestion box in the rear of the room and encourage students to make written comments every time the class meets. Do oral show of-hands multiple choice tests for summary review and instant feedback. Use task groups to accomplish specific objectives. Grade quizzes and exercises in class as a learning tool. Give students plenty of opportunity for practice before a major test. Give a test early in the semester and return it graded in the next class meeting. Have students write questions on index cards to be collected and answered the next class period. Make collaborate assignments for several students to work on together. Assign written paraphrases and summaries of difficult reading. Give students a take-home problem relating to the days lecture. Encourage students to bring current news items to class which relate to the subject matter and post these on a bulletin board nearby. Building Community Learn names. Everyone makes an effort to learn at least a few names. Set up a buddy system so students can contact each other about assignments and coursework. Find out about your students via questions on an index card. Take pictures of students (snapshots in small groups, mug shots) and post in classroom, office, or lab. Arrange helping trios of students to assist each other in learning and growing. Form small groups for getting acquainted; mix and form new groups several times. Assign a team project early in the semester and provide time to assemble the team. Help students form study groups to operate outside the classroom. Solicit suggestions from students for outside resources and guest speakers on course topics. Feedback on Teaching Gather student feedback in the first three weeks of the semester to improve teaching and learning.

FIRST DAY OF CLASS

What can we do on the first day of class? What should we do?

One common answer is simply to start lecturing: "This is day one, here is lecture one, away we go." Another possibility is: "Here is the syllabus, go buy your books and we will see you at the next scheduled class period." Neither of these two options seems desirable. But what are some other possibilities?

Several years ago a group of professors at the University of Oklahoma visited each other on the first day of class and then discussed what they saw each other doing. But the discussion quickly went from what they observed, to "What might be done?" They eventually identified nine attractive possibilities, as described below. A teacher should not feel obliged to do all of these, but doing even one or several of them on the first day (or during the first week) would seem to accomplish a number of important tasks for getting a class started in the right way.

1. Involve students quickly.

   This can be done in a variety of ways:

   • having them introduce themselves
   • allowing them to think and write silently
   • having a whole-class or a small-group discussion, etc.

   But letting students know right from the outset that they will be active participants seems like a good approach.

2. Identify the value and importance of the subject.

   Not all students come to all classes with a clear idea of why this subject is important. The teacher may need to help them understand the significance of the course. The sooner this is done, the sooner the students will be ready to invest time and energy in the task of learning the subject matter.

3. Set expectations.

   This can involve such things as what the teacher considers appropriate amounts of study time and homework for the class, the importance of turning homework in on time, expectations about in-class behavior, how the teacher wants to relate to students, and how much interaction among students is desired. The first day also offers an opportunity to find out what expectations the students have of the teacher and of the class.

4. Establish rapport.

   Almost any class will be more enjoyable for both the teacher and the students if they know each other a bit. This exchange can be started with introductions, sharing some background information, etc.

5. Reveal something about yourself.

   Sometimes students can relate to the teacher more productively if they can see him or her as a human being, i.e., as something more than just an authority figure or subject matter expert. Sharing personal stories and being able to laugh at yourself can help this process.

6. Establish your own credibility.

   Sometimes this happens automatically, but at other times students need to know about the teacher's prior work experience, travel experience, or research and publications in an area. Having this knowledge can help students gain confidence that the "teacher knows what she or he is talking about."

7. Establish the "climate" for the class.

   Different teachers prefer different classroom climates: intense, relaxed, formal, personal, humorous, serious, etc. Whatever climate you want, you should try to establish this early and set the tone for the rest of the semester.

8. Provide administrative information.

   This often takes the form of going through the syllabus, presuming you have a syllabus with this information in it: what reading material the students will need; what kind of homework will be involved; what you office hours are; where your office is located; how the class grade will be determined; what your policies are regarding attendance, late papers, make-up exams, etc.

9. Introduce the subject matter.

   Generally this introduction will be facilitated by starting with some kind of overview of the subject.

   • What is it?
   • What are the parts of the subject?
   • How is it connected to other kinds of knowledge?

Final Note:

Remember that it is imperative that you do on the first day whatever it is you want the class to do the rest of the semester. If you want them to discuss, discuss on the first day. If you want them to work in small groups, find something for them to do in small groups on the first day.