GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION

Basic principles of motivation exist that are applicable to learning in any situation. The environment can be used to focus the student's attention on what needs to be learned. Teachers who create warm and accepting yet business-like atmospheres will promote persistent effort and favorable attitudes toward learning. This strategy will be successful in children and in adults. Interesting visual aids, such as booklets, posters, or practice equipment, motivate learners by capturing their attention and curiosity. Incentives motivate learning. Incentives include privileges and receiving praise from the instructor. The instructor determines an incentive that is likely to motivate an individual at a particular time. In a general learning situation, self-motivation without rewards will not succeed. Students must find satisfaction in learning based on the understanding that the goals are useful to them or, less commonly, based on the pure enjoyment of exploring new things. Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than is external motivation, which must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards. Some individuals -- particularly children of certain ages and some adults -- have little capacity for internal motivation and must be guided and reinforced constantly. The use of incentives is based on the principle that learning occurs more effectively when the student experiences feelings of satisfaction. Caution should be exercised in using external rewards when they are not absolutely necessary. Their use may be followed by a decline in internal motivation. Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is, when one wants to know something. Sometimes the student's readiness to learn comes with time, and the instructor's role is to encourage its development. If a desired change in behavior is urgent, the instructor may need to supervised directly to ensure that the desired behavior occurs. If a student is not ready to learn, he or she may not be reliable in following instructions and therefore must be supervised and have the instructions repeated again and again. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized. In general, the best organized material makes the information meaningful to the individual. One method of organization includes relating new tasks to those already known. Other ways to relay meaning are to determine whether the persons being taught understand the final outcome desired and instruct them to compare and contrast ideas. None of the techniques will produce sustained motivation unless the goals are realistic for the learner. The basic learning principle involved is that success is more predictably motivating than is failure. Ordinarily, people will choose activities of intermediate uncertainty rather than those that are difficult (little likelihood of success) or easy (high probability of success). For goals of high value there is less tendency to choose more difficult conditions. Having learners assist in defining goals increases the probability that they will understand them and want to reach them. However, students sometimes have unrealistic notions about what they can accomplish. Possibly they do not understand the precision with which a skill must be carried out or have the depth of knowledge to master some material. To identify realistic goals, instructors must be skilled in assessing a student's readiness or a student's progress toward goals. Because learning requires changed in beliefs and behavior, it normally produces a mild level of anxiety. This is useful in motivating the individual. However, severe anxiety is incapacitating. A high degree of stress is inherent in some educational situations. If anxiety is severe, the individual's perception of what is going on around him or her is limited. Instructors must be able to identify anxiety and understand its effect on learning. They also have a responsibility to avoid causing severe anxiety in learners by setting ambiguous of unrealistically high goals for them. It is important to help each student set goals and to provide informative feedback regarding progress toward the goals. Setting a goal demonstrates an intention to achieve and activates learning from one day to the next. It also directs the student's activities toward the goal and offers an opportunity to experience success. Both affiliation and approval are strong motivators. People seek others with whom to compare their abilities, opinions, and emotions. Affiliation can also result in direct anxiety reduction by the social acceptance and the mere presence of others. However, these motivators can also lead to conformity, competition, and other behaviors that may seem as negative. Many behaviors result from a combination of motives. It is recognized that no grand theory of motivation exists. However, motivation is so necessary for learning that strategies should be planned to organize a continuous and interactive motivational dynamic for maximum effectiveness. The general principles of motivation are interrelated. A single teaching action can use many of them simultaneously. Finally, it should be said that an enormous gap exists between knowing that learning must be motivated and identifying the specific motivational components of any particular act. Instructors must focus on learning patterns of motivation for an individual or group, with the realization that errors will be common.

MOTIVATION FACTORS AND STRATEGIES, BY TIME PERIOD BEGINNING, DURING, AND ENDING

TIME BEGINNING: When learner enters and starts learning MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS ATTITUDES: Toward the environment, teacher, subject matter, and self NEEDS: The basic need within the learner at the time of learning MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES -- Make the conditions that surround the subject positive. -- Positively confront the possibly erroneous beliefs, expectations, and assumptions that may underlie a negative learner attitude. -- Reduce or remove components of the learning environment that lead to failure or fear. -- Plan activities to allow learners to meet esteem needs. TIME During: When learner is involved in the body or main content of the learning process. MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS STIMULATION: The stimulation processes affecting learner during the learning experience. AFFECT: The emotional experience of the learner while learning. MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES -- Change style and content of the learning activity. -- Make learner reaction and involvement essential parts of the learning process, that is, problem solving, role playing, stimulation. -- Use learner concerns to organize content and to develop themes and teaching procedures. -- Use a group cooperation goal to maximize learner involvement and sharing. TIME ENDING: When learner is completing the learning process. MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS COMPETENCE: The competence value for the learner that is a result of the learning behaviors. REINFORCEMENT: The reinforcement value attached to the learning experience, for the learner. MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES -- Provide consistent feedback regarding mastery of learning. -- Acknowledge and affirm the learners' responsibility in completing the learning task. -- When learning has natural consequences, allow them to be congruently evident. -- Provide artificial reinforcement when it contributes to successful learning, and provide closure with a positive ending.